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Classical Conditioning. Classical conditioning is a technique frequently used in behavioral training in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes to evoke the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus, even without the naturally occurring stimulus presenting itself. Throughout the course of three distinct phases, the associated stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus and the learned behavior is known as the conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning. Operant conditioning sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. When a desirable result follows an action, the behavior becomes more likely to occur again in the future.
Responses followed by adverse outcomes, on the other hand, become less likely to happen again in the future. The classical conditioning process works by developing an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. In physiologist Ivan Pavlov's classic experiments, dogs associated the presentation of food something that naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response with the sound of a bell, at first, and then the sight of a lab assistant's white coat.
Eventually, the lab coat alone elicited a salivation response from the dogs. During the first part of the classical conditioning process, known as acquisition , a response is established and strengthened.
Factors such as the prominence of the stimuli and the timing of presentation can play an important role in how quickly an association is formed. When an association disappears, this is known as extinction , causing the behavior to weaken gradually or vanish.
Factors such as the strength of the original response can play a role in how quickly extinction occurs. The longer a response has been conditioned, for example, the longer it may take for it to become extinct. Behaviorist B. Skinner described operant conditioning as the process in which learning can occur through reinforcement and punishment. For example, if a parent rewards their child with praise every time they pick up their toys, the desired behavior is consistently reinforced.
As a result, the child will become more likely to clean up messes. Reinforcement schedules are important in operant conditioning. This process seems fairly straight forward—simply observe a behavior and then offer a reward or punishment. However, Skinner discovered that the timing of these rewards and punishments has an important influence on how quickly a new behavior is acquired and the strength of the corresponding response.
One of the major benefits of behaviorism is that it allowed researchers to investigate observable behavior in a scientific and systematic manner.
However, many thinkers believed it fell short by neglecting some important influences on behavior. One of the greatest strengths of behavioral psychology is the ability to clearly observe and measure behaviors. Behaviorism is based on observable behaviors, so it is sometimes easier to quantify and collect data when conducting research. Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, behavior analysis, token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism.
These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults. Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behavior.
Critics of behaviorism suggest that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings. Freud , for example, felt that behaviorism failed by not accounting for the unconscious mind's thoughts, feelings, and desires that influence people's actions. Other thinkers, such as Carl Rogers and the other humanistic psychologists , believed that behaviorism was too rigid and limited, failing to take into consideration personal agency.
They said that science should take into account only observable indicators. Watson and Skinner believed that if they were given a group of infants, the way they were raised and the environment they put them in would be the ultimate determining factor for how they acted, not their parents or their genetics. A group of dogs would hear a bell ring and then they would be given food. After enough time, when the bell would ring the dogs would salivate, expecting the food before they even saw it.
This is exactly what behaviorism argues—that the things we experience and our environment are the drivers of how we act. The stimulus-response sequence is a key element of understanding behaviorism.
A stimulus is given, for example a bell rings, and the response is what happens next, a dog salivates or a pellet of food is given.
Behavioral learning theory argues that even complex actions can be broken down into the stimulus-response. In the classroom, the behavioral learning theory is key in understanding how to motivate and help students.
Information is transferred from teachers to learners from a response to the right stimulus. Students are a passive participant in behavioral learning—teachers are giving them the information as an element of stimulus-response.
Teachers use behaviorism to show students how they should react and respond to certain stimuli. This needs to be done in a repetitive way, to regularly remind students what behavior a teacher is looking for. Positive reinforcement is key in the behavioral learning theory. Repetition and positive reinforcement go hand-in-hand with the behavioral learning theory.
Teachers often work to strike the right balance of repeating the situation and having the positive reinforcement come to show students why they should continue that behavior. Motivation plays an important role in behavioral learning. Positive and negative reinforcement can be motivators for students. Classical conditioning attempts to account for this through learning by association. Watson used this in his conditioning of his case study "Little Albert.
Watson was able to conclude from this that phobias are not a result of the unconscious, as psychoanalysts had believed, but were the result of conditioning.
Thorndike concluded from his experiments on cats that there were two laws of learning: the law of exercise and the law of effect. The law of exercise stating that the more times a task is carried out, the better we become at it; with learning having taken place. The law of effect says that there is a link between our behaviour and its consequences.
Skinner, influenced by Thorndike, contributed to behaviourism with the concept of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning requires a reward or unpleasant consequence during the learning process to encourage or discourage us in our learning and repeating of the behaviour. By studying the behaviour of rats, Skinner was able to show that behaviour followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in the behaviour occurring more frequently in the future.
Positive and negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a similar response to the stimulus in the future.
Punishment should reduce the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring. The usefulness of punishment though is more limited and less effective than reinforcement. Skinner formed five different reinforcement schedules after noticing that the learned behaviours became extinct after prolonged periods: continuous reinforcement, fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, and variable interval.
Variable ratio and variable interval were the most effective having high rates of desired behavioural response and being more resistant to extinction. There are limitations to behaviourism despite its being so scientifically rigorous and truthful in that we do behave in terms of stimulus-response associations, and do perform better when encouraged positively. Behaviourism has been accused of being a reductionist theory in that it explains us in terms of merely stimulus-response units; ignoring our high-level mental processes.
The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems, and use the simplest explanations to understand how they work.
Toggle navigation. Therefore, when born our mind is 'tabula rasa' a blank slate. Watson stated that: 'Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science.
Watson described the purpose of psychology as: 'To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction.
Key Features. Basic Assumptions. Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner. Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking. Behavior is the result of stimulus—response i. Behavior is determined by the environment e. Areas of Application.
The behaviorist approach provides clear predictions. This means that explanations can be scientifically tested and support with evidence. Free will vs Determinism. Nature vs Nurture. Holism vs Reductionism. Idiographic vs Nomothetic. Are the research methods used scientific? Download this article as a PDF.
How to reference this article: How to reference this article: McLeod, S. Classical conditioning refers to learning by association, and involves the conditioning of innate bodily reflexes with new stimui. Any feature of the environment that affects behavior. The behavior elicited by the stimulus. Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of behavior.
Reward — in the sense of removing or avoiding some aversive painful stimulus. Imposing an aversive or painful stimulus. Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. Reductionism is the belief that human behavior can be explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts.
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