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Descartes invented the method of representing the unknown numbers in equations as x, y, z and the known numbers as a, b and c. He was the pioneer of the standard notation in exponents that is the use of the superscripts. His work was the foundation for other mathematicians such as Newton and Leibniz. He wrote a treatise about emotions titled Passions of the Soul , and in this he stated boldly his intention to write as though he were the first man to have written on the subject.
He rejected the idea that bodily substance should be divided into form and matter, and he objected to the idea that there was any purpose, divine or otherwise, behind the phenomena of the natural world. Descartes was also an important figure in the rationalism of the 17th century. In this, he could be seen as the forerunner of men like Gottfried Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza.
Many of the continental rationalists, including both Spinoza and Leibniz as well as Descartes himself, had extensive mathematical knowledge, allowing them to make great contributions to the advancement of science. He dedicated it to Princess Elisabeth. The Principles is an important text. The work is divided into four Parts, with five hundred and four articles. Although it would appear to be a quick run through of the Meditations , there are a number of dissimilarities. The principles introduced in Part Two are based on the metaphysics of Part One.
And, the subsequent physics developed in Parts Three and Four is based upon the principles of Part Two. Although the physics turns out to be unsound, the Principles nevertheless inspired such great thinkers as Robert Boyle — , Edmond Halley — , and Isaac Newton.
As an important side note, it must be stressed that even though Descartes had throughout his career put a great deal of emphasis on mathematics, the physics developed in the Principles does not appear to be a mathematical physics. Rather, it is traditionally taken to be a conceptual project with only a hint of empirical overtones—a physics rooted entirely in metaphysics. Two parts, never completed, were originally intended to deal with plants, animals, and man.
In light of this and what Descartes says in a 31 January letter to the mathematician Constantijn Huygens, it is plausible to think that the Principles would have looked something like The World had it been completed as planned. One of the more controversial positions the Principles forwarded, at least according to Newton, was that a vacuum was impossible. In other words, vacuum, taken as an extended nothing , is a flat contradiction. The corporeal universe is thus a plenum, individual bodies separated only by their surfaces.
Newton argued in his De Gravitatione and Principia that the concept of motion becomes problematic if the universe is taken to be a plenum. In line with the ancient atomist Epicurus, they argued that if matter was infinitely divisible, so dividing it would show that there was no bottom—and so, corporeality would not be substantial. So, if corporeality is substantial, as Descartes himself had claimed, there must be a minimum measure of extension that could not be divided by natural means, anyway.
And so, there are atoms. But, this conclusion is something that Descartes explicitly rejects in the Principles.
During this year another prominent political figure began to correspond with Descartes, Queen Christina of Sweden. And, Regius published what he took to be a new and improved version of Cartesian science, which as we now know would draw the wrath of Voetius. In response to this, Descartes wrote a single-page printed defense that was posted on public kiosks for all to read.
However, as mentioned earlier, tensions mounted as a result of the public exchange and Descartes felt his way of life in the Netherlands to be threatened. And, after a not too lengthy correspondence, Queen Christina offered Descartes a position in her court. For many reasons, which would certanily include those related to his concerns about Voetius, Descartes accepted the offer.
And, in he left for Sweden. Queen Christina at first required very little from Descartes. However, according to Gaukroger, this would change. For, after he had some time to settle in, she ordered him to do two things: first, to put all of his papers in order, and secondly, to put together designs for an academy Gaukroger, p. Arguably, Descartes had some idea of how the latter might be done by way of his experience in Breda.
In January of Queen Christina began to require Descartes to give her lessons in philosophy. These apparently would begin at five in the morning and would last for about five hours.
They were given three days a week Gaukroger, p. During this time Descartes published the Passions , the work having emerged primarily from his correspondence with Princess Elisabeth to whom he had dedicated the Principles.
Such passions can move us to action. Contact, in this context, seems to be possible only by way of surfaces. Now, bodies, since they are extended and thus have surfaces, can come into contact with one another and thus can cause one another to move. However, if minds are not extended, they lack surfaces.
And, if they lack surfaces, there is no way in principle for bodies to come into contact with them. Thus, there is no way in principle for bodies to move minds, and vice versa. That is, minds and bodies cannot in principle causally interact. Although things seemed to be moving forward, they were not going as well as one would have hoped.
In a letter to Bregy, for instance, dated 15 January , Descartes expresses reservations about his decision to come to Sweden. In early February, less than a month after writing Bregy, Descartes fell ill. His illness quickly turned into a serious respiratory infection. The Method and Meditations are regarded as among the most influential works in the history of philosophy and Rene Descartes is considered as the father of modern western philosophy.
Though most known for his philosophy, Descartes was also one of the leading mathematicians of his time. He invented the Cartesian coordinate system , which forms the foundation of analytic geometry. Also known as Cartesian geometry after Rene Descartes, analytic geometry is the study of geometry using the Cartesian coordinate system.
It allowed for the first time the conversion of geometry into algebra; and vice versa. Analytic geometry is widely used today in physics and engineering, and also in aviation, rocketry, space science and spaceflight. Descartes also contributed significantly in the development of modern physics.
Most importantly, he provided the first distinctly modern formulation of laws of nature. He discovered an early form of the law of conservation of mechanical momentum. He also made important contributions to the field of optics. Descartes visited the Hague to find support for his philosophical work as it was a gathering place for the leading intellectual figures and powerful men in the Netherlands. Princess Elisabeth took keen interest in the work of Descartes and, in , she began her famous correspondence with him which lasted till his death in It is evident from the correspondence that Elisabeth had a remarkable and wide-ranging critical philosophical acumen.
Connected with his correspondence with Elisabeth, Descartes published in his work titled Passions of the Soul , and he dedicated it to the princess. The correspondence of Descartes and Princess Elisabeth is considered an important philosophical document.
The same year, Queen Christina of Sweden invited Descartes to her court. She wanted him to organize a new scientific academy there and to tutor her in his ideas about love. Descartes accepted her invitation and moved to Sweden. He probably started with his private lessons on December 19, Christina had a strict schedule and she made Descartes rise before AM to come to her castle in the cold.
Rene Descartes contracted pneumonia on February 1, He died in Stockholm on February 11 at the age of
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